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Functions: the essentials

This brief guide has three main purposes:

1. to explain what is meant by function in language
2. to identify some of the main functions
3. to suggest some ways in which functions can be introduced, taught and practised in the classroom

What is meant by function

Unfortunately, as with many things in ELT, there are two accepted meanings of the term function:

1. Grammatical function
   This refers to what a word or phrase is doing in a sentence rather than what it looks like.  For example
   1. In
          Smoking is bad for you
      it is clear that smoking is a form of a verb.  However, its grammatical function in that sentence is a noun.  Compare, for example:
          Fat is bad for you
          Sugar is bad for you
      etc.
   2. This change in word class happens with all sorts of words in English.  What is often a noun can act as a verb:
          I bank in town at that bank there (a verb and a noun)
      and what is usually an adjective can become a noun:
          One absolute essential is to start on time; it really is essential that we do that (the word essential is firstly a noun and then an adjective)
   3. Grammatical function can also apply to a phrase or even a whole clause.  For example, in:
          That he wrote me such as rude letter surprised me
      the clause That he wrote me such as rude letter is acting as a noun and is the subject of the verb surprise.
2. Communicative function
   This refers to the communicative value of what we say and write, rather than the grammatical form that we happen to select.  For example:
   1. I could use a cup of tea
      is a simple statement but it acts as a request in many cases
   2. Is that your car in the street?
      may be a question but it could easily also be a demand to move it
   3. Get away!
      looks like an imperative (an order) but is, in fact, often an expression of surprise.

In this guide, we are concerned with communicative rather than grammatical function.

What are the main communicative functions in languages

Notice that the heading contains 'in languages' not 'in English'.  Functions are, of course, common across all languages and the mismatch we saw above between the form and what it actually means in context is a phenomenon that occurs in all languages, too.  But functions are often differently expressed, of course.

There are usually considered to be three types of function in languages but the categories may overlap.  They are:

1. The descriptive function:
   This refers to giving and understanding factual information.  For example:
       Can you tell me where the station is?
       It's getting late
       I'm taking the train home
       I can't help you
   etc.
2. The expressive function:
   This concerns the relaying and understanding of information about the speaker's feelings, preferences and ideas.  For example:
       I'm not feeling well
       I really don't like that man
       I am not even going to try
   etc.
3. The social function:
   This refers to establishing and maintaining social relationships, especially roles and power structures.  For example:
       Can I help you, madam?
       Anything else?
       Good morning officer.  How can I help you?

Here's a list of the main functions by the categories used in the Council of Europe's Modern Language Project in the 1970s and 1980s:

As you can see, the 68 functions that we need are unlikely to have changed since they were written although how we express some of these functions will change all the time.

The theory is that if you can do all these things in a foreign language, you will be able to communicate successfully.  How well you can do them will determine how successfully you communicate.

The right-hand column is headed Example exponents.  An exponent of a function is the language which is used to realise it in use.  For example, if I have a function of offering, I may choose two structural exponents:
    Would you like ... ?
    Can I tempt you to ... ?
and a range of vocabulary items that will do the job for me such as:
    some more
    one of these
    a bit more
    more
etc.
Putting them together, I have a range of exponents for the function of offering.

The relationship between form and function

We saw above that what we say is not necessarily what we mean.  Here are some more examples of this.

• What about going for a walk?
  could be
  • a suggestion to act together
  • a piece of advice about getting rid of a headache
• Have you got any sugar?
  could be
  • an inquiry about facts
  • a request to borrow some
• That's my shirt
  could be
  • a statement of fact
  • a warning not to touch it
• It doesn't matter
  could be
  • an expression of indifference
  • a way of forgiving someone

and so on.

All is not lost because very often the form and function are closely aligned.  For example,
    Please tell me your name
is unlikely to be anything but an inquiry about a fact and
    I can't do this crossword
is unlikely to be anything but an expression or personal inability (although it could be a plea for help).

However, there is, in no language, a consistently simple one-to-one relationship between the form of what is said or written and its communicative function.

As a short exercise, can you identify some of the functions that could be fulfilled by the examples in this table?
Click on the when you have some ideas.

Do you have a minute?	This looks like a question asking for information but, in fact, it often functions as a statement of desire, something like: I would like to talk to you It may also, of course, be a request for help and mean something like: If you aren't busy, can you help me?
The restaurant closes in half an hour.	This looks like a simple statement of fact but could mean: Hurry up, we'll be late! or Please finish your meal or It will soon be time to go home so cheer up depending on who is talking to whom, the setting and the intentions.
That cake looks delicious.	This looks like a statement of opinion but could equally mean: Let's buy some Can I have some? Well done etc.

If you would like to learn more about form and function, try this guide.
Now we have laid the groundwork, if you like, you can go on to a more practical guide to teaching functional language.

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